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The language's syntax borrows heavily from C while omitting or changing standard C features such as variadic functions , pointer syntax, and aspects of C's type system, because they hamper essential features of C-- and ease of code-generation. Work on C-- began in the late s. Since writing a custom code generator is a challenge in itself, and the compiler backends available to researchers at that time were complex and poorly documented, several projects had written compilers which generated C code for instance, the original Modula-3 compiler.

However, C is a poor choice for functional languages: it does not guarantee tail-call optimization , or support accurate garbage collection or efficient exception handling. C-- is a tightly-defined simpler alternative to C which supports all of these. Its most innovative feature is a run-time interface which allows writing of portable garbage collectors, exception handling systems and other run-time features which work with any C-- compiler.

The C-- type system is designed to reflect constraints imposed by hardware rather than conventions imposed by higher-level languages. A value stored in a register or memory may have only one type: bit-vector. However, bit-vector is a polymorphic type which comes in several widths, e.

A separate or bit family of floating-point types is supported. In addition to the bit-vector type, C-- provides a boolean type bool , which can be computed by expressions and used for control flow but cannot be stored in a register or memory.

As in an assembly language, any higher type discipline, such as distinctions between signed, unsigned, float, and pointer, is imposed by the C-- operators or other syntactic constructs. C-- is not type-checked, nor does it enforce or check the calling convention.

C-- version 2 removes the distinction between bit-vector and floating-point types. These types can be annotated with a string "kind" tag to distinguish, among other things, a variable's integer vs float typing and its storage behavior global or local.

The former is useful on targets that have separate registers for integer and floating-point values. Special types for pointers and the native word were introduced, although they are mapped to a bit-vector with a target-dependent length.

The specification page of C-- lists a few implementations of C The "most actively developed" compiler, Quick C--, was abandoned in The most common statement is an expression statement , consisting of an expression to be evaluated, followed by a semicolon; as a side effect of the evaluation, functions may be called and variables may be assigned new values. To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords.

Structured programming is supported by if The for statement has separate initialization, testing, and reinitialization expressions, any or all of which can be omitted. There is also a non-structured goto statement which branches directly to the designated label within the function.

Different from many other languages, control-flow will fall through to the next case unless terminated by a break. Expressions can use a variety of built-in operators and may contain function calls.

The order in which arguments to functions and operands to most operators are evaluated is unspecified. The evaluations may even be interleaved.

However, all side effects including storage to variables will occur before the next " sequence point "; sequence points include the end of each expression statement, and the entry to and return from each function call.

This permits a high degree of object code optimization by the compiler, but requires C programmers to take more care to obtain reliable results than is needed for other programming languages. Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better. Newline indicates the end of a text line; it need not correspond to an actual single character, although for convenience C treats it as one.

Additional multi-byte encoded characters may be used in string literals, but they are not entirely portable. The basic C execution character set contains the same characters, along with representations for alert , backspace , and carriage return.

Run-time support for extended character sets has increased with each revision of the C standard. C89 has 32 reserved words, also known as keywords, which are the words that cannot be used for any purposes other than those for which they are predefined:.

C11 reserved seven more words: [29]. Most of the recently reserved words begin with an underscore followed by a capital letter, because identifiers of that form were previously reserved by the C standard for use only by implementations. Since existing program source code should not have been using these identifiers, it would not be affected when C implementations started supporting these extensions to the programming language. Some standard headers do define more convenient synonyms for underscored identifiers.

The language previously included a reserved word called entry , but this was seldom implemented, and has now [ when? C supports a rich set of operators , which are symbols used within an expression to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression.

C has operators for:. The similarity between these two operators assignment and equality may result in the accidental use of one in place of the other, and in many cases, the mistake does not produce an error message although some compilers produce warnings. The C operator precedence is not always intuitive. The program prints "hello, world" to the standard output , which is usually a terminal or screen display.

The original version was: [33]. A standard-conforming "hello, world" program is: [a]. The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive , indicated by include. This causes the compiler to replace that line with the entire text of the stdio. The angle brackets surrounding stdio.

The next line indicates that a function named main is being defined. The main function serves a special purpose in C programs; the run-time environment calls the main function to begin program execution. The type specifier int indicates that the value that is returned to the invoker in this case the run-time environment as a result of evaluating the main function, is an integer.

The keyword void as a parameter list indicates that this function takes no arguments. The opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the main function.

The next line calls diverts execution to a function named printf , which in this case is supplied from a system library. The string literal is an unnamed array with elements of type char , set up automatically by the compiler with a final 0-valued character to mark the end of the array printf needs to know this.

The return value of the printf function is of type int , but it is silently discarded since it is not used. A more careful program might test the return value to determine whether or not the printf function succeeded. The semicolon ; terminates the statement. The closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the main function.

Formerly an explicit return 0; statement was required. This is interpreted by the run-time system as an exit code indicating successful execution. Integer type char is often used for single-byte characters. C99 added a boolean datatype. There are also derived types including arrays , pointers , records struct , and unions union. C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type system may be necessary.

The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a type cast to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a data object in some other way.

Some find C's declaration syntax unintuitive, particularly for function pointers. Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their use: " declaration reflects use ". C's usual arithmetic conversions allow for efficient code to be generated, but can sometimes produce unexpected results.

For example, a comparison of signed and unsigned integers of equal width requires a conversion of the signed value to unsigned. This can generate unexpected results if the signed value is negative. C supports the use of pointers , a type of reference that records the address or location of an object or function in memory. Pointers can be dereferenced to access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to function.

Pointers can be manipulated using assignment or pointer arithmetic. The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address perhaps augmented by an offset-within-word field , but since a pointer's type includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type-checked at compile time.

Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data type. Pointers are used for many purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters. Dynamic memory allocation is performed using pointers; the result of a malloc is usually cast to the data type of the data to be stored.

Many data types, such as trees , are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated struct objects linked together using pointers. Pointers to other pointers are often used in multi-dimensional arrays and arrays of struct objects. Pointers to functions function pointers are useful for passing functions as arguments to higher-order functions such as qsort or bsearch , in dispatch tables , or as callbacks to event handlers.

A null pointer value explicitly points to no valid location. Dereferencing a null pointer value is undefined, often resulting in a segmentation fault. Null pointer values are useful for indicating special cases such as no "next" pointer in the final node of a linked list , or as an error indication from functions returning pointers.

In appropriate contexts in source code, such as for assigning to a pointer variable, a null pointer constant can be written as 0 , with or without explicit casting to a pointer type, or as the NULL macro defined by several standard headers. In conditional contexts, null pointer values evaluate to false, while all other pointer values evaluate to true. Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be and in many contexts implicitly are converted to and from any other object pointer type.

Careless use of pointers is potentially dangerous. Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location, which can cause undesirable effects.

Although properly used pointers point to safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer arithmetic ; the objects they point to may continue to be used after deallocation dangling pointers ; they may be used without having been initialized wild pointers ; or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer.

In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers typically provide options for various levels of checking. Some other programming languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types.

Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile time. The more recent C99 standard also allows a form of variable-length arrays. However, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory of arbitrary size at run-time, using the standard library's malloc function, and treat it as an array.

Since arrays are always accessed in effect via pointers, array accesses are typically not checked against the underlying array size, although some compilers may provide bounds checking as an option. C does not have a special provision for declaring multi-dimensional arrays , but rather relies on recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which effectively accomplishes the same thing.

The index values of the resulting "multi-dimensional array" can be thought of as increasing in row-major order. Multi-dimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms mainly from applied linear algebra to store matrices. The structure of the C array is well suited to this particular task.

However, in early versions of C the bounds of the array must be known fixed values or else explicitly passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing.

A workaround for this was to allocate the array with an additional "row vector" of pointers to the columns. C99 introduced "variable-length arrays" which address this issue.

The following example using modern C C99 or later shows allocation of a two-dimensional array on the heap and the use of multi-dimensional array indexing for accesses which can use bounds-checking on many C compilers :. Furthermore, in most expression contexts a notable exception is as operand of sizeof , an expression of array type is automatically converted to a pointer to the array's first element.

This implies that an array is never copied as a whole when named as an argument to a function, but rather only the address of its first element is passed. Therefore, although function calls in C use pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in effect passed by reference. The total size of an array x can be determined by applying sizeof to an expression of array type. Note, that if only a pointer to the first element is available as it is often the case in C code because of the automatic conversion described above, the information about the full type of the array and its length are lost.

One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three principal ways to allocate memory for objects: [34].

These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various trade-offs. For example, static memory allocation has little allocation overhead, automatic allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation.

The persistent nature of static objects is useful for maintaining state information across function calls, automatic allocation is easy to use but stack space is typically much more limited and transient than either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time. Most C programs make extensive use of all three. Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually simplest because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially error-prone chore of manually allocating and releasing storage.

However, many data structures can change in size at runtime, and since static allocations and automatic allocations before C99 must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation is necessary.

See the article on malloc for an example of dynamically allocated arrays. Unlike automatic allocation, which can fail at run time with uncontrolled consequences, the dynamic allocation functions return an indication in the form of a null pointer value when the required storage cannot be allocated. Static allocation that is too large is usually detected by the linker or loader , before the program can even begin execution. Unless otherwise specified, static objects contain zero or null pointer values upon program startup.

Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are initialized only if an initial value is explicitly specified; otherwise they initially have indeterminate values typically, whatever bit pattern happens to be present in the storage , which might not even represent a valid value for that type. If the program attempts to access an uninitialized value, the results are undefined. Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives can occur.

Heap memory allocation has to be synchronized with its actual usage in any program to be reused as much as possible. For example, if the only pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope or has its value overwritten before it is deallocated explicitly, then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program, a phenomenon known as a memory leak.

Conversely, it is possible for memory to be freed, but is referenced subsequently, leading to unpredictable results. Typically, the failure symptoms appear in a portion of the program unrelated to the code that causes the error, making it difficult to diagnose the failure.

Such issues are ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection. The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension.

In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single "archive" file. Each library typically has a header file , which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions.

In order for a program to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires compiler flags e.

The most common C library is the C standard library , which is specified by the ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation implementations which target limited environments such as embedded systems may provide only a subset of the standard library. This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values.

Several separate standard headers for example, stdio. Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-like systems, especially functions which provide an interface to the kernel.

Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other libraries available. Libraries are often written in C because C compilers generate efficient object code ; programmers then create interfaces to the library so that the routines can be used from higher-level languages like Java , Perl , and Python.

A stream is from this perspective a data flow that is independent of devices, while a file is a concrete device. In the C standard library, a buffer a memory area or queue is temporarily used to store data before it is sent to the final destination.

This reduces the time spent waiting for slower devices, for example a hard drive or solid state drive. A number of tools have been developed to help C programmers find and fix statements with undefined behavior or possibly erroneous expressions, with greater rigor than that provided by the compiler. The tool lint was the first such, leading to many others.

Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and for C many such tools exist, such as Lint. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors. MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems.

There are also compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for performing actions that are not a standard part of C, such as bounds checking for arrays, detection of buffer overflow , serialization , dynamic memory tracking, and automatic garbage collection.

Tools such as Purify or Valgrind and linking with libraries containing special versions of the memory allocation functions can help uncover runtime errors in memory usage. C is widely used for systems programming in implementing operating systems and embedded system applications.

Historically, C was sometimes used for web development using the Common Gateway Interface CGI as a "gateway" for information between the web application, the server, and the browser. A consequence of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers , libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C.

C enables programmers to create efficient implementations of algorithms and data structures, because the layer of abstraction from hardware is thin, and its overhead is low, an important criterion for computationally intensive programs. Many languages support calling library functions in C, for example, the Python -based framework NumPy uses C for the high-performance and hardware-interacting aspects.

C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other languages. This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C as an intermediate language, additional machine-specific code generators are not necessary. C has some features, such as line-number preprocessor directives and optional superfluous commas at the end of initializer lists, that support compilation of generated code.

However, some of C's shortcomings have prompted the development of other C-based languages specifically designed for use as intermediate languages, such as C Also, contemporary major compilers GCC and LLVM both feature an intermediate representation that is not C, and those compilers support front ends for many languages including C. C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications. For some purposes, restricted styles of C have been adopted, e.

Databases such as CWE attempt to count the ways C etc. There are tools that can mitigate against some of the drawbacks. Contemporary C compilers include checks which may generate warnings to help identify many potential bugs.

Both languages were originally implemented as source-to-source compilers ; source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler.

Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk : syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. General-purpose programming language. For the book, see The C Programming Language. Main article: B programming language. There is an implicit 'int' type here since we're talking about early version of C. It's commented out here to show where it could go in later variants. Main article: C Main article: C11 C standard revision. Main article: C17 C standard revision. Main article: C2x. Main article: Embedded C.

Main article: C syntax. See also: Hello, world. Main article: C variable types and declarations. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. October Learn how and when to remove this template message. See also: C string. July Learn how and when to remove this template message. In fact, C99 requires that a diagnostic message be produced.

The ISO C standard section 5. C in a Nutshell. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN The cppreference. Archived from the original on October 24, Retrieved October 24, June 3,

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The language previously included a reserved word called entry , but this was seldom implemented, and has now [ when? C supports a rich set of operators , which are symbols used within an expression to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression. C has operators for:. The similarity between these two operators assignment and equality may result in the accidental use of one in place of the other, and in many cases, the mistake does not produce an error message although some compilers produce warnings.

The C operator precedence is not always intuitive. The program prints "hello, world" to the standard output , which is usually a terminal or screen display. The original version was: [33]. A standard-conforming "hello, world" program is: [a]. The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive , indicated by include.

This causes the compiler to replace that line with the entire text of the stdio. The angle brackets surrounding stdio. The next line indicates that a function named main is being defined. The main function serves a special purpose in C programs; the run-time environment calls the main function to begin program execution.

The type specifier int indicates that the value that is returned to the invoker in this case the run-time environment as a result of evaluating the main function, is an integer. The keyword void as a parameter list indicates that this function takes no arguments. The opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the main function. The next line calls diverts execution to a function named printf , which in this case is supplied from a system library.

The string literal is an unnamed array with elements of type char , set up automatically by the compiler with a final 0-valued character to mark the end of the array printf needs to know this. The return value of the printf function is of type int , but it is silently discarded since it is not used.

A more careful program might test the return value to determine whether or not the printf function succeeded. The semicolon ; terminates the statement.

The closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the main function. Formerly an explicit return 0; statement was required. This is interpreted by the run-time system as an exit code indicating successful execution.

Integer type char is often used for single-byte characters. C99 added a boolean datatype. There are also derived types including arrays , pointers , records struct , and unions union. C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type system may be necessary. The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a type cast to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a data object in some other way.

Some find C's declaration syntax unintuitive, particularly for function pointers. Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their use: " declaration reflects use ". C's usual arithmetic conversions allow for efficient code to be generated, but can sometimes produce unexpected results. For example, a comparison of signed and unsigned integers of equal width requires a conversion of the signed value to unsigned. This can generate unexpected results if the signed value is negative.

C supports the use of pointers , a type of reference that records the address or location of an object or function in memory. Pointers can be dereferenced to access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to function. Pointers can be manipulated using assignment or pointer arithmetic.

The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address perhaps augmented by an offset-within-word field , but since a pointer's type includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type-checked at compile time. Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data type. Pointers are used for many purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters.

Dynamic memory allocation is performed using pointers; the result of a malloc is usually cast to the data type of the data to be stored. Many data types, such as trees , are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated struct objects linked together using pointers. Pointers to other pointers are often used in multi-dimensional arrays and arrays of struct objects. Pointers to functions function pointers are useful for passing functions as arguments to higher-order functions such as qsort or bsearch , in dispatch tables , or as callbacks to event handlers.

A null pointer value explicitly points to no valid location. Dereferencing a null pointer value is undefined, often resulting in a segmentation fault. Null pointer values are useful for indicating special cases such as no "next" pointer in the final node of a linked list , or as an error indication from functions returning pointers.

In appropriate contexts in source code, such as for assigning to a pointer variable, a null pointer constant can be written as 0 , with or without explicit casting to a pointer type, or as the NULL macro defined by several standard headers. In conditional contexts, null pointer values evaluate to false, while all other pointer values evaluate to true.

Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be and in many contexts implicitly are converted to and from any other object pointer type.

Careless use of pointers is potentially dangerous. Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location, which can cause undesirable effects. Although properly used pointers point to safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer arithmetic ; the objects they point to may continue to be used after deallocation dangling pointers ; they may be used without having been initialized wild pointers ; or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer.

In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers typically provide options for various levels of checking. Some other programming languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types. Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile time. The more recent C99 standard also allows a form of variable-length arrays.

However, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory of arbitrary size at run-time, using the standard library's malloc function, and treat it as an array. Since arrays are always accessed in effect via pointers, array accesses are typically not checked against the underlying array size, although some compilers may provide bounds checking as an option. C does not have a special provision for declaring multi-dimensional arrays , but rather relies on recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which effectively accomplishes the same thing.

The index values of the resulting "multi-dimensional array" can be thought of as increasing in row-major order. Multi-dimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms mainly from applied linear algebra to store matrices.

The structure of the C array is well suited to this particular task. However, in early versions of C the bounds of the array must be known fixed values or else explicitly passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing.

A workaround for this was to allocate the array with an additional "row vector" of pointers to the columns. C99 introduced "variable-length arrays" which address this issue. The following example using modern C C99 or later shows allocation of a two-dimensional array on the heap and the use of multi-dimensional array indexing for accesses which can use bounds-checking on many C compilers :.

Furthermore, in most expression contexts a notable exception is as operand of sizeof , an expression of array type is automatically converted to a pointer to the array's first element. This implies that an array is never copied as a whole when named as an argument to a function, but rather only the address of its first element is passed.

Therefore, although function calls in C use pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in effect passed by reference. The total size of an array x can be determined by applying sizeof to an expression of array type.

Note, that if only a pointer to the first element is available as it is often the case in C code because of the automatic conversion described above, the information about the full type of the array and its length are lost. One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three principal ways to allocate memory for objects: [34].

These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various trade-offs. For example, static memory allocation has little allocation overhead, automatic allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation.

The persistent nature of static objects is useful for maintaining state information across function calls, automatic allocation is easy to use but stack space is typically much more limited and transient than either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time.

Most C programs make extensive use of all three. Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually simplest because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially error-prone chore of manually allocating and releasing storage. However, many data structures can change in size at runtime, and since static allocations and automatic allocations before C99 must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation is necessary.

See the article on malloc for an example of dynamically allocated arrays. Unlike automatic allocation, which can fail at run time with uncontrolled consequences, the dynamic allocation functions return an indication in the form of a null pointer value when the required storage cannot be allocated. Static allocation that is too large is usually detected by the linker or loader , before the program can even begin execution.

Unless otherwise specified, static objects contain zero or null pointer values upon program startup. Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are initialized only if an initial value is explicitly specified; otherwise they initially have indeterminate values typically, whatever bit pattern happens to be present in the storage , which might not even represent a valid value for that type. If the program attempts to access an uninitialized value, the results are undefined.

Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives can occur. Heap memory allocation has to be synchronized with its actual usage in any program to be reused as much as possible.

For example, if the only pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope or has its value overwritten before it is deallocated explicitly, then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program, a phenomenon known as a memory leak. Conversely, it is possible for memory to be freed, but is referenced subsequently, leading to unpredictable results.

Typically, the failure symptoms appear in a portion of the program unrelated to the code that causes the error, making it difficult to diagnose the failure.

Such issues are ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection. The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension. In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single "archive" file. Each library typically has a header file , which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions.

In order for a program to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires compiler flags e. The most common C library is the C standard library , which is specified by the ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation implementations which target limited environments such as embedded systems may provide only a subset of the standard library. This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values.

Several separate standard headers for example, stdio. Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-like systems, especially functions which provide an interface to the kernel.

Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other libraries available. Libraries are often written in C because C compilers generate efficient object code ; programmers then create interfaces to the library so that the routines can be used from higher-level languages like Java , Perl , and Python. A stream is from this perspective a data flow that is independent of devices, while a file is a concrete device.

In the C standard library, a buffer a memory area or queue is temporarily used to store data before it is sent to the final destination. This reduces the time spent waiting for slower devices, for example a hard drive or solid state drive. A number of tools have been developed to help C programmers find and fix statements with undefined behavior or possibly erroneous expressions, with greater rigor than that provided by the compiler. The tool lint was the first such, leading to many others.

Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and for C many such tools exist, such as Lint. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors.

MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems. There are also compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for performing actions that are not a standard part of C, such as bounds checking for arrays, detection of buffer overflow , serialization , dynamic memory tracking, and automatic garbage collection. Tools such as Purify or Valgrind and linking with libraries containing special versions of the memory allocation functions can help uncover runtime errors in memory usage.

C is widely used for systems programming in implementing operating systems and embedded system applications. Historically, C was sometimes used for web development using the Common Gateway Interface CGI as a "gateway" for information between the web application, the server, and the browser.

A consequence of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers , libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C. C enables programmers to create efficient implementations of algorithms and data structures, because the layer of abstraction from hardware is thin, and its overhead is low, an important criterion for computationally intensive programs. Many languages support calling library functions in C, for example, the Python -based framework NumPy uses C for the high-performance and hardware-interacting aspects.

C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other languages. This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C as an intermediate language, additional machine-specific code generators are not necessary. C has some features, such as line-number preprocessor directives and optional superfluous commas at the end of initializer lists, that support compilation of generated code.

However, some of C's shortcomings have prompted the development of other C-based languages specifically designed for use as intermediate languages, such as C Also, contemporary major compilers GCC and LLVM both feature an intermediate representation that is not C, and those compilers support front ends for many languages including C.

C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications. For some purposes, restricted styles of C have been adopted, e. Databases such as CWE attempt to count the ways C etc. There are tools that can mitigate against some of the drawbacks. Contemporary C compilers include checks which may generate warnings to help identify many potential bugs.

Both languages were originally implemented as source-to-source compilers ; source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk : syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. General-purpose programming language. For the book, see The C Programming Language. Main article: B programming language. There is an implicit 'int' type here since we're talking about early version of C. It's commented out here to show where it could go in later variants.

Main article: C Main article: C11 C standard revision. Main article: C17 C standard revision. Main article: C2x. Main article: Embedded C. Main article: C syntax. See also: Hello, world. Main article: C variable types and declarations.

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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. October Learn how and when to remove this template message. See also: C string. July Learn how and when to remove this template message. In fact, C99 requires that a diagnostic message be produced. The ISO C standard section 5. C in a Nutshell. O'Reilly Media, Inc. ISBN The cppreference. Archived from the original on October 24, Retrieved October 24, June 3, Archived from the original PDF on November 6, Retrieved August 19, English Chinese Dictionary.

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Archived from the original on March 28, Retrieved March 28, Examples of reference types are object the ultimate base class for all other C classes , System. String a string of Unicode characters , and System. Array a base class for all C arrays.

Boxing is the operation of converting a value-type object into a value of a corresponding reference type. Unboxing is the operation of converting a value of a reference type previously boxed into a value of a value type. A boxed object of type T can only be unboxed to a T or a nullable T.

The C specification details a minimum set of types and class libraries that the compiler expects to have available. In addition to the standard CLI specifications, there are many commercial and community class libraries that build on top of the. NET framework libraries to provide additional functionality. C can make calls to any library included in the List of. NET libraries and frameworks.

The following is a very simple C program, a version of the classic " Hello world " example using the top-level statements feature introduced in C 9: [82]. For code written as C 8 or lower, the entry point logic of a program must be written in a Main method inside a type:. The above line imports all types in the System namespace.

For example, the Console class used later in the source code is defined in the System namespace, meaning it can be used without supplying the full name of the type which includes the namespace. Above is a class definition for the Program class. Everything that follows between the pair of braces describes that class. The curly brackets demarcate the boundaries of a code block. In this first instance, they are marking the start and end of the Program class. This declares the class member method where the program begins execution.

NET runtime calls the Main method. Unlike in Java , the Main method does not need the public keyword, which tells the compiler that the method can be called from anywhere by any class. The static keyword makes the method accessible without an instance of Program.

Each console application's Main entry point must be declared static otherwise the program would require an instance of Program , but any instance would require a program. To avoid that irresolvable circular dependency , C compilers processing console applications like that above report an error if there is no static Main method.

The void keyword declares that Main has no return value. This line writes the output. Console is a static class in the System namespace. It provides an interface to the standard input, output, and error streams for console applications. The program calls the Console method WriteLine , which displays on the console a line with the argument, the string "Hello, world!

This example is similar to the previous example, except that it generates a dialog box that contains the message "Hello, World! Another useful library is the System. Drawing library, which is used to programmatically draw images. For example:. This process usually takes 6—9 months. Microsoft initially agreed not to sue open-source developers for violating patents in non-profit projects for the part of the framework that is covered by the OSP.

NET or Novell's implementation of. A decade later, Microsoft began developing free, open-source, and cross-platform tooling for C , namely Visual Studio Code ,. NET Core , and Roslyn. Mono joined Microsoft as a project of Xamarin , a Microsoft subsidiary. Microsoft is leading the development of the open-source reference C compilers and set of tools. It is thus enabling developers to create refactoring and diagnostics tools. NET Framework closed-source, Windows-only and.

NET Core open-source, cross-platform ; they eventually converged into one open-source implementation:. NET 5. NET Framework 4. Other C compilers some of which include an implementation of the Common Language Infrastructure and. NET class libraries :. The Unity game engine uses C as its primary scripting language.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Multi-paradigm object-oriented programming language. The correct title of this article is C. The substitution of the is due to technical restrictions. NET Framework 1. NET Framework 2. NET Framework 3. NET Core 1. NET Core 2. Main article: C syntax. See also: Syntax programming languages. See also: Comparison of C and Java.

WriteLine "Hello, world! Show "Hello, World! WriteLine "Is almost the same argument! FromFile "Image. For older features, use the 1.

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